THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

By Matthew V. Grieco

 How many people realize when they go to the polls that the word “candidate” comes from the Latin “candidatus,” which signified the white robe worn by Romans running for public office? How many are aware that, in writing our Constitution (from the Latin constitutio) the Founding Fathers modeled key features of the government (gubernatio) on the Roman Republic (from res publica, which literally means “the public matter”)?

The Romans believed in a system of checks and balances, a precaution derived from their prior experience with the tyranny of kings, and a desire to not vest too much power in one person’s hands. That was accomplished in several ways: the government leaders (magistrates) were elected by the people; to one-year terms; the positions had minimum age requirements; there was a mandatory progression of offices that had to be held before running for a higher one (the cursus honorum); a person could not run for reelection or even election to another office before a set waiting period; and each office was shared by two or more people, who held equal power, and thus could veto (literally, “I oppose”) each other.

If the system for magistrates seems a bit fractured, stability was provided by the Senate, which was composed of former magistrates who sat for life, unless expelled for misdeeds. The Senators (meaning “elders”) were responsible for finances and administration, but were also consulted on legislation and all other important matters.

The magistrates were not elected directly by popular vote, but by blocs of voters organized into assemblies, somewhat akin to our Electoral College. All the positions were unpaid.

The chief civil and military position was shared by two Consuls (the word may derive from consulere, “to deliberate,” or cum-esse, meaning, roughly, “colleague”).

The next most important position was that of Praetor (which means one who “precedes,” i.e., goes before others in importance). The number of Praetors was increased over the years from two to eight, as Rome expanded across the Mediterranean. Their most notable function was the administration of justice, although they also had military authority, could initiate legislation, and governed provinces.

Next in the hierarchy was the Aedile (the word comes from “aedes,” or “shrine,” indicating the original function of overseeing temples). At first two, eventually there were four Aediles, who were responsible for public buildings, streets, water and food supply, weights and measures, festivals, and games (i.e., chariot races and gladiatorial events). The position was not a requisite in the cursus honorem, but was a useful means of currying favor with the people by funding games or magnificent buildings (think WPA projects, employing many people).

The entry level office was the Quaestor (meaning “one who asks questions”). At first, the Quaestors were charged with prosecuting certain criminal cases, but eventually they were given treasury functions; by the time of Julius Caesar, their number was increased to forty.

Not technically a magistrate was the Tribunus Plebis, or Tribune of the People (Tribunus derives from “tribus” or “tribe”). The number of Tribunes became fixed at ten, and their purpose was to protect the common people, with their veto power and ability to summon the people to enact laws through a plebiscita (plebiscite).

The position of Censor (from censere, to “assess”) was not permanent; two Censors were elected every five years and held office for eighteen months to conduct a census and oversee morals.

In times of crisis, upon the recommendation of the Senate, a consul could nominate a Dictator (“one who declares” or “dictates”), confirmed by the people. The Dictatorship was the only office that could be held by one person, without a co-equal colleague, and could override all other magistrates, and thus the term was limited to six months.

Eventually, and for multiple reasons, the Republic was transformed into the Empire, ruled by an Emperor, who maintained at least the trappings of a republic and continued to rely on the Senate. However, the Roman Republic lasted 500 years (509-27 B.C.), far longer than all other republics except for Venice and San Marino, both, naturally, Italian.